c | HSIS

Calcium

Description	Calcium is an essential mineral.
Function/ Used for	The most abundant mineral in the body, calcium is essential for building and maintaining healthy bones and teeth. Calcium also plays a role in muscle contraction, including the heart muscle; facilitates nerve transmissions; is involved in energy production and cell division and is used in the blood clotting mechanism.
Intake	Recommended intake EU NRV: 800mg UK average daily intake Requirements vary depending on age and gender. The UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey lists up-to-date intake requirements and average intakes¹.
As a supplement	Available as a single supplement. Also commonly available as part of a multivitamin and mineral formula. Different multivitamin and minerals products will vary in the percentage NRVs they include. People should always check the label for information about a specific product.
Found in (dietary sources)	Good sources include dairy products, canned fish such as sardines (when the soft, edible bones are consumed), dark green leafy vegetables, white bread, brown bread, sesame seeds and pulses.
Deficiency	Long term deficiency leads to osteoporosis, muscle aches and pains, muscle twitching and spasm, muscle cramps; rickets (in children), osteomalacia (softening of bones), heart disorders, brittle nails and insomnia.
Precautions and contraindications	Calcium supplements should be avoided in conditions associated with hypercalcaemia (high calcium levels in the bloods) and hypercalcuria (elevated calcium in the urine), and in renal (kidney) impairment (chronic).² Safe Upper Level: 1500mg/day³
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	No problems have been reported. Calcium supplements may be required during pregnancy and breast-feeding and should be combined with vitamin D to ensure effective absorption.⁴
Interactions e.g. with other medications	Excessive alcohol intake may reduce calcium absorption. Aluminium- and magnesium-containing antacids may reduce calcium absorption. Calcium can decrease absorption of some antibiotics, biphosphonates (to treat osteoporosis) and anti-convulsants (to treat epilepsy). Loop diuretics increase excretion of calcium in the urine whereas thiazide-type diuretics may reduce calcium excretion. Calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate may reduce absorption of iron and should be given 2 hours apart.⁵
Adverse effects	Reported adverse effects with calcium supplements include nausea, constipation and flatulence (usually mild).
References	1. https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-diet-and-nutrition-survey 2. Mason, P. Dietary Supplements. Pharmaceutical Press, London, 2001. 3. Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals, 2003. 4. NHS Choices Vitamins, supplements and nutrition in pregnancy http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/pages/vitamins-minerals-supplements-pregnant.aspx#Calcium 5. Gaby, A. R. A-Z Guide to Drug-Herb-Vitamin Interactions. HealthNotes 2006.

Page content last reviewed: March 16, 2017

Chamomilla (Matricaria recutita)

Description	Chamomile comes from the dried daisy like flowers of the Matricaria recutita plant (sometimes called Matricaria chamomilla, Chamomilla recutita or German chamomile). Chamomile contains a number of active constituents including volatile oils and antioxidants.
Function/ Used for	Chamomile is renowned for its health supporting properties which include relaxation, carminative (acting to soothe and support the digestive system), anti-inflammatory and anti-septic. It is widely used to promote general relaxation and to help calm the digestive system. It can also be topically applied to help soothe skin rashes and burns, including sunburn. It can be used as a mouth wash for inflammation of the mouth such as gingivitis and for bathing inflamed and sore eyes.
Intake	N/A
As a supplement	Unprocessed dried flowers are available to buy in bulk. Chamomile tea prepared in tea bags is also readily available. It can be found in aqueous or alcohol extracts and as topical ointments and creams. Essential oil of chamomile is also widely available.As a general guide, 2-8grams dried flower per day, as an infusion (tea) or equivalent liquid extract is generally recognised as safe¹.
Found in (dietary sources)	N/A
Deficiency	N/A
Precautions and contraindications	Chamomile oil should not be taken internally.
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	The American National Institute of Health advise that chamomile and essential oil of chamomile should not be used in pregnancy as it may stimulate uterine contractions.²
Interactions e.g. with other medications	None known
Adverse effects	Allergic reactions have been reported in those individuals sensitive to members of the Compositae family, i.e. daisies, ragweed, and crysanthemums.³
References	¹Williamson, E. M. Potter’s Herbal Cyclopaedia. C.W. Daniel Co Ltd. 2003 ² “Roman chamomile: MedlinePlus”. MedlinePlus. National Institutes of Health. 2012-02-16. Retrieved 15/02/2017 https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/natural/752.html ³Braun & Cohen. Herbs and Natural Supplements: An evidence-based guide. Churchill Livingstone, 2005.

Page content last reviewed: March 20, 2017

Choline

Description	Choline is a vitamin-like water-soluble organic compound. It is an essential nutrient naturally present in some foods and in dietary supplements. Although the body can produce small amounts of choline in the liver, we still need to consume it in foods to gain enough.
Function/ Used for	Choline is a source of methyl groups needed for many steps in metabolism. The body needs choline to synthesize phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, two major phospholipids vital for cell membranes and also the neurotransmitter acetylcoline. It is vital for good brain health and brain development in unborn babies1. Choline also contributes to normal lipid metabolism, homocysteine metabolism and liver function¹.
Intake	Adequate Intake (AI) as recommended by EFSA2: 400mg/day The AI for pregnant women is set at 480mg/day and for lactating women is raised to 520mg/day.
As a supplement	Commonly available as a single supplement. Also available in combination with B-complex vitamins, and in some multivitamin/multimineral products. Different multivitamin and minerals products will vary in the percentage NRVs amount of choline they include. People should always check the label for information about a specific product.
Found in (dietary sources)	Good sources of choline include mostly animal products such as eggs, milk, oily fish such as salmon, and meat. Plant-based sources include cruciferous vegetables, beans, mushrooms, peanuts and soya products.
Deficiency	Choline deficiency (although rare) can cause muscle and liver damage as well as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)². Genetic pre-dispositions and gender can influence individual requirements for choline³.
Precautions and contraindications	Safe Upper Level (Guidance Level): not established.
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	Suggested choline intakes increase during pregnancy and lactation² (see ‘Intake’).
Interactions e.g. with other medications	Choline is not known to have any clinically relevant interactions with medications.
Adverse effects	Choline is considered to be very safe in quantities consumed through the diet. Excessive intake (>7g/day) has been found to cause hypotension and gastrointestinal effects alongside a fishy body odour. Choline has also been shown to increase trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) production which has been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease².
References	1 EU Community Register of Nutrition and Health Claims http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/labelling_nutrition/claims/register/public/?event=register.home 2 EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA); Dietary Reference Values for choline. EFSA Journal 2016. 14(8): e04484. [online]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4484 3 National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements; Choline: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals [online]. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Choline-HealthProfessional/#en4

Page content last reviewed: October 26, 2021

Chromium

Description	Chromium is an essential trace mineral.
Function/ Used for	Chromium is involved in the processes that make glucose available for energy. It is also important for the metabolism of amino acids (the ‘building blocks’ of proteins) and fats.
Intake	Recommended intake EU NRV: 40μg (micrograms)¹ UK average daily intake In the UK, the average daily intake of chromium from food was 100μg/day (1997 Total Diet Study).³
As a supplement	Available as a single supplement. Also commonly available as part of a multivitamin and mineral formula. Different multivitamin and minerals products will vary in the percentage NRVs they include. People should always check the label for information about a specific product.
Found in (dietary sources)	Good sources include liver, kidney, yeast products, wholegrain cereal, nuts and legumes.
Deficiency	Gross chromium deficiency is rarely seen in humans, but signs and symptoms of marginal deficiency include: Glucose intolerance (insulin resistant hyperglycaemia – high sugar levels in the blood, raised serum lipids and weight loss)².
Precautions and contraindications	Because of its effect on blood glucose levels, diabetics should only take chromium under medical supervision. Not suitable for epileptics.Safe Upper Level: 10mg¹
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	There is no evidence of adverse effects in pregnancy at normal intakes.
Interactions e.g. with other medications	Chromium supplements containing yeast should be avoided by people taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors for the treatment of depression. People taking any medication for diabetes (either injected insulin or oral antidiabetics) should seek medical advice before taking chromium. Absorption of beta-blockers and corticosteroids may be increased by chromium; people using these drugs should seek medical advice before taking chromium supplements.²
Adverse effects	None known when taken orally.
References	¹ Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals, 2003. 2 Mason, P. Dietary Supplements. Pharmaceutical Press, London, 2001 3. Manual of Nutrition 12^th Ed. Dept. of Health, June 2012.

Page content last reviewed: March 20, 2017

Co-enzyme Q10

Description	Co-enzyme Q10 (CoQ10), sometimes called Ubiquinone, is a naturally occurring vitamin-like substance produced by the body. It is found in the mitochondria of all cells in the body, but particularly in those of the heart, liver, kidneys and pancreas. Co-enzyme Q10 is produced in the body but the ability to synthesise CoQ10 reduces with age.
Function/ Used for	CoQ10 is needed for the process that converts the energy from food into energy that can be used by the body. CoQ10 also works as an antioxidant, neutralising potentially damaging free radicals to stabilise cell membranes and protect both lipids (fats) and proteins. It also works to regenerate other antioxidants such as vitamin E. CoQ10 is also essential for the normal function of the heart muscle.
Intake	N/A
As a supplement	CoQ10 is sold in capsules and tablets in strengths of 10–200 mg. Absorption is increased when capsules containing CoQ10 in an oil base are taken with meals.¹
Found in (dietary sources)	CoQ10 can be mainly found in organ meats such as liver and kidneys; fish and shellfish; and the germ portion of whole grains. It can also be found in smaller quantities in soya beans, nuts and vegetables, particularly spinach and broccoli.
Deficiency	N/A
Precautions and contraindications	CoQ10 should not be used to treat cardiovascular disorders without medical supervision.
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	Safety in pregnancy and breastfeeding has not been established.
Interactions e.g. with other medications	In patients on warfarin (an anti-coagulant) and heart medication (eg. Beta-blockers), high doses of CoQ10 should be used with caution. The synthesis of CoQ10 follows a similar biochemical pathway as cholesterol and, therefore, drugs which lower cholesterol such as statins also inhibit CoQ10 production in the body. Other drugs which may reduce levels of CoQ10 include hypertensive drugs (used to treat high blood pressure, e.g. clonidine, hydralazine, methyldopa), thiazide diuretics (e.g. hydrochlorothiazide) and tricyclic antidepressants (e.g. amitriptyline).²
Adverse effects	CoQ10 appears to be safe and relatively well tolerated in doses of 10–200 mg daily. There are occasional reports of gastrointestinal discomfort, dizziness and skin rash, but these tend to occur with doses in excess of 200mg daily.¹
References	¹ Mason, P. Dietary Supplements. Pharmaceutical Press, London, 2001. ² Gaby A.R et al. A-Z Guide to Drug-Herb-Vitamin Interactions. Health Notes. Three Rivers Press. New York. 2006

Page content last reviewed: March 16, 2017

Cod liver oil

Description	Cod liver oil is obtained from the liver of the cod. Cod liver oil and other fish liver oils are rich sources of vitamins A & D; they are also rich sources of the omega-3 essential fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Function/ Used for	EPA and DHA are found in every cell membrane in the body and have a wide range of functions. Their health benefits include¹: Reducing triglyceride levels in the blood Heart health Supporting brain function Reducing blood pressure Maintaining eye health EPA and DHA also inhibit the production of inflammatory chemicals in the body and have an anti-inflammatory effect in their own right. Fish body oils and fish liver oils are widely used in the management of inflammatory joint conditions². EPA may also help to discourage the formation of blood clots and help assist the blood to flow freely around the arteries, maintaining the circulation. EPA may also help maintain a healthy heart. DHA is important in infant development, particularly in prematurely born infants. It is believed to be necessary to early eye and brain development. DHA is also thought to support brain development throughout childhood. Omega 3 fatty acids also help maintain suppleness.
Intake	The European Food Safety Authority³ makes recommendations for EPA and DHA intake, substances which are found in fish oils: · 250mg of EPA/DHA per day for adults and children over the age of 2. · 100mg DHA per day for infants and young children aged 7-24 months. · 100-200mg DHA per day in addition to general adult requirements for pregnant and lactating women from fish body oils (fish liver oils should be avoided. See ‘use in pregnancy and breastfeeding’).
As a supplement	Cod liver oil and other fish oil supplements are available as capsules and liquids. Food supplements generally provide 100–1500 mg combined EPA/DHA per dose. The dose is not established but doses of 1-3g daily may be adequate.
Found in (dietary sources)	Cod liver oil is obtained from the liver of the cod.
Deficiency	N/A
Precautions and contraindications	Patients with blood clotting disorders or those taking anticoagulants such as warfarin should be monitored while taking cod liver oil or other fish oils.⁴
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	Cod liver oil or other fish liver oil supplements should not be taken by women who are pregnant or planning a pregnancy because high amounts of vitamin A may be present. Fish body oils do not contain vitamin A and are safe to consume up to 3 grams a day.⁴
Interactions e.g. with other medications	Taking cod liver oil or other fish oils with anticoagulants (such as warfarin), aspirin, dipyridamole (a vasodilator), ginkgo biloba or ginseng, may increase the risk of bleeding. Medical supervision in these cases is required.⁴
Adverse effects	Fish liver oils contain vitamins A and D , fat soluble vitamins that can be toxic when consumed in excessive amounts.⁴ Reflux or “burping up” of fish oil may occur in some individuals. Take with food to avoid this occurring.
References	¹EU Community Register of Nutrition and Health Claims http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/labelling_nutrition/claims/register/public/?event=register.home ² Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, via the National Library of Medicines National Institutes of Health ³EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA); Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol. EFSA Journal 2010; 8(3):1461. [online] Available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1461.htm [Accessed February 2017]. ⁴ Mason, P. Dietary Supplements. Pharmaceutical Press, London, 2001.

Page content last reviewed: March 16, 2017

Copper

Description	Copper is an essential trace mineral.
Function/ Used for	Copper is an essential component of several enzymes. Copper supports iron absorption and works with iron in the formation of red blood cells. It acts as an antioxidant, supports the function of the immune system and is needed for connective tissues, bone growth, nerve function and energy release. It also helps to maintain skin and hair pigmentation.
Intake	Recommended intake EU NRV: 1mg UK average daily intake In the UK, the average daily intake of copper in 2000/01 was 1.2mg/per day from food.¹
As a supplement	Available as a single supplement. Also commonly available as part of a multivitamin and mineral formula. Different multivitamin and minerals products will vary in the percentage NRVs they include. People should always check the label for information about a specific product.
Found in (dietary sources)	Good sources include wholegrain products, liver, most seafood, dried beans and peas. In the UK many water pipes are made from copper and, therefore, tap water is an excellent source.
Deficiency	Deficiency of copper is rare. Marginal deficiency may result in elevated cholesterol levels; impaired glucose tolerance; defects in pigmentation and structure of the hair; demyelination (loss of the myelin sheath that surrounds the neurons to protect nerves); and degeneration of the nervous system. In infants and children, copper deficiency can lead to skeletal fragility and increased susceptibility to infections, especially those of the respiratory tract.²
Precautions and contraindications	Copper should not be taken by people with Wilson’s disease (the disorder may be exacerbated) or hepatic and biliary disease. Safe Upper Level: 10mg/day³
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	There is no evidence of adverse effects in pregnancy with normal intakes.
Interactions e.g. with other medications	Penicillamine, Trientine, and large doses of Zinc and Iron may reduce absorption of copper and vice versa – give 2 hours apart. Vitamin C in large doses (> 1 g daily) may reduce copper status. Copper may reduce the absorption of ciprofloxacin, an antibiotic used to treat bacterial infections. Copper may enhance the anti-inflammatory effect of ibuprofen and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).^2,4
Adverse effects	In excessive doses copper is toxic and can lead to nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, jaundice and metallic taste.
References	¹ Manual of Nutrition 12^th Ed., Dept. of Health, June 2012. ² Mason, P. Dietary Supplements. Pharmaceutical Press, London, 2001. ³ Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals, 2003. ⁴ Gaby, A. R. A-Z Guide to Drug-Herb-Vitamin Interactions. HealthNotes 2006.

Page content last reviewed: March 20, 2017

Cranberry

Description	A native American plant, closely related to the blueberry.
Function/ Used for	Cranberries and cranberry juice contain substances that may help to maintain a healthy urinary tract.
Intake	N/A
As a supplement	Available as juice, fresh or frozen berries, cranberry concentrate, dried capsules and tablets. Between 3 to 10 grams per day of cranberry in tablet or capsule form is recommended for a healthy urinary tract¹. A daily dose of up to 960ml juice is recommended for the prevention and treatment of urinary tract infections.²
Found in (dietary sources)	N/A
Deficiency	N/A
Precautions and contraindications	None known
Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding	Cranberry is suitable to be taken during pregnancy and breastfeeding at dietary doses¹.
Interactions e.g. with other medications	None known¹
Adverse effects	At high doses, gastrointestinal discomfort may occur¹.
References	1. Braun & Cohen. Herbs and Natural Supplements: An evidence-based guide. Churchill Livingstone, 2005. 2. Williamson, E. M. Potter’s Herbal Cyclopaedia. C.W. Daniel Co Ltd. 2003

Page content last reviewed: March 20, 2017

µg	Microgram a measurement of weight equal to one millionth of a gram (or one thousandth of a milligram). Microgram (µg or mcg) is used for a number of nutrients found in food supplements.
Amino Acid	The building blocks of protein, there are eight essential amino acids which cannot be synthesised within the body and therefore must come from the diet. These are: isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. In addition arginine and histidine are amino acids required by infants and young children which supports their rapid growth.
Antioxidant	A substance or nutrient which helps to protect our cells from damage caused by free radicals, damaging molecules which are found in pollution and tobacco smoke. Our bodies also produce free radicals as part of the normal biochemistry of living.
Deficiency	A lack of essential macronutrients or micronutrients which results in malnutrition and or disease. This may be the result of inadequate intakes or absorption issues associated with gastrointestinal disease. There are a number of recognised deficiency diseases including (but not exclusively): scurvy (vitamin C deficiency); rickets (vitamin D deficiency); anaemia (iron deficiency, but also deficiencies in B12 and folic acid) and Kwashiorkor (protein deficiency).
DH	The Department of Health is a UK Government department. It has responsibility for nutrition legislation and sets health policy for nutrition.
DHA	Docosahexaenoic acid; one of the key omega-3 fats that provides health benefits
Dietitian	An individual qualified in nutrition and dietetics who can assess, diagnose and treat health issues associated with nutrition and diet. Dietitians are governed by law with a statutory code of practice; they often work within the health service although increasing numbers are also working in a freelance capacity.
EFA	Essential fatty acids (omega 3 and omega 6) cannot be synthesised by the body and must be derived from the diet. EFAs do not provide fuel for energy production and are required for vital biological processes which support growth, development and health.
EFSA	European Food Safety Authority; the European Union food risk management agency which scientifically evaluates safety across all areas of food.
EPA	Eicosapentaenoic acid; one of the key omega-3 fats that provides health benefits.
Fat soluble vitamin	The fat soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K. Because they are fat soluble these substances can accumulate in the body, often being stored in fat cells, or in the liver. This can create health issues, particularly if intakes have been high for a prolonged period of time. For example, long term high intakes of vitamin D may lead to the laying down of calcium in tissues such as liver and kidneys which can cause nausea and vomiting.
Food supplement	A food supplement is a concentrated source of vitamins, minerals or other substances with a nutritional or physiological effect which is sold in small, measured unit doses.
FSA	The Food Standards Agency is a non-ministerial UK Government department responsible for food safety and food hygiene.
GLA	Gamma-linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid (an essential fatty acid considered to be necessary for human health which must be derived from the diet). GLA is most commonly found in evening primrose oil (EPO), borage or starflower oil and blackcurrant seed oil.
Health claim	A health claim is any claim which states, or implies, that consumption of a specific food will have a beneficial effect on health. Claims may be written, verbal or pictorial.
Herbal medicine (herbal remedy)	A product is considered to be a herbal medicine if the main active ingredient/s are only herbal substances or preparations. Not all herbal products are medicines, some may be food supplements and some may be cosmetics. What determines if a product is, or is not a medicine is complex but generally rests with how the product is presented (i.e. does it make medicinal claims to treat, prevent or cure any disease) and what it does (i.e. does it have a physiological impact on, or alter, any body functions).
Macronutrient	Dietary constituents which are needed in significant amounts, generally protein, fat, carbohydrate, fibre and water.
Malnutrition	Malnutrition is a state in which the deficiency of nutrients such as energy, protein, vitamins or minerals results in measurable adverse effects on the body. Malnutrition may refer to insufficient intake of protein, carbohydrate and fats (macronutrients) which can result in overly low BMI. It may also be insufficient intake of vitamins, minerals and other micronutrients, which can impact on overall health and could include obese individuals with poor diets.
Mg	Milligram is a measurement of weight equal to one thousandth of a gram. Mg is used for a number of nutrients found in food supplements.
Micronutrient	A substance derived from food which is needed in extremely small amounts for the normal growth and development of living beings. Micronutrients are vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids (omega-3 fats)
Mineral	Inorganic micronutrient essential to health and wellbeing. Minerals are absorbed from soil by plants which are in turn eaten by animals or humans. Minerals may be split into minerals which are needed in relatively high amounts (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, chloride and potassium) and trace elements (iron, zinc, cobalt, copper, chromium, fluoride, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, boron and selenium) which are needed in very small quantities.
Multivitamin	A product which contains more than one vitamin, often multivitamins will contain all 13 vitamins although some may contain only the eight B vitamins, or a combination of some of the vitamins and some additional minerals.
NDNS	The UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey is a continuous rolling survey of the dietary habits and nutritional status of adults and children in the UK. The results are used to assess whether intakes of food and nutrients are adequate across different ages and population groups.
NRV	Nutrient Reference Value is the amount set by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), primarily to support food labelling, which the majority of the population requires to maintain health. Previously known as RDA
Nutrient	A substance derived from food which provides nourishment to the body and is essential for the maintenance of life and for growth and development.
Nutritionist	Nutritionists generally work for public bodies or governments, although some do work with private clients. They tend to look at large populations to determine risk factors and make dietary recommendations that are applied at population levels. For example, evidence on the incidence of type II Diabetes led public health nutritionists to determine that some populations are more at risk of developing this disease, and to make recommendations for dietary changes to either reduce the risk or manage the disease. However, public health nutritionists do not practice with individual patients.
Omega-3 fats	Essential fatty acids which cannot be synthesised by the body and must be derived from the diet. Primary sources for omega-3 fats are oily fish and fish oil supplements with some also coming from enriched eggs and fortified foods. There are a number of scientifically proven health benefits for omega-3 fats including supporting the health of the eyes, brain and heart, maintaining an appropriate balance of triglycerides in the blood and reducing blood pressure.
Omega-6 fats	Essential fatty acids which cannot be synthesised by the body and must be derived from the diet. Primary sources for omega-6 are vegetable oils such as sunflower and corn oils as well as nuts and seeds. There are a number of health benefits associated with omega-6 fatty acids; they are thought to be beneficial in the management of premenstrual syndrome and in some skin conditions including eczema and psoriasis.
PAGB	Proprietary Association of Great Britain (PAGB) is the UK trade association which represents the manufacturers of branded over-the-counter medicines, self care medical devices and food supplements.
Prebiotics	Foods which promote the growth of probiotics, the beneficial bacteria that inhabit our gut. Prebiotics are generally fibres such as inulin, which our bodies cannot digest and absorb but which provide a food source for probiotics.
Probiotics	Live bacteria (and some yeasts) which inhabit the digestive tract which are viewed as being beneficial to human health. There are thousands of different bacterial strains; some are resident in specific areas of the digestive tract whilst others are transient, simply passing through.
Public Health England (PHE)	Public Health England is an agency of the Department of Health responsible for improving public health. They work with local government, the NHS and non-governmental organisations as well as communicating public health messages to the general public.
PUFA	Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are found in nuts, seeds, fish (and fish oil), krill and some algae, small amounts are also found in leafy greens. The omega-3 and omega 6 fats are PUFAs, which are generally associated with health.
RDA	Recommended Daily Amount; previously used terminology for the amount set, primarily to support food labelling, which the majority of the population require to maintain health. Now described using nutrient reference value (NRV)
SUL	Safe Upper Levels of vitamins and minerals were established by the Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals who published a report in 2003 (https://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/vitmin2003.pdf). The UK food supplements industry works to the levels set in this report.
Vitamin	Organic micronutrient essential to health and wellbeing. Vitamins cannot be synthesised in sufficient amounts by the animal or human body and must therefore be obtained from the diet. Plants manufacture vitamins which move up the food chain as the plants are consumed by animals or humans. Vitamins can be divided into fat soluble (vitamins A, D, E and K) and water soluble (vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B12, biotin, folic acid and vitamin C).
Water soluble vitamin	The B vitamins and vitamin C are water soluble. They are not stored in any significant quantities within the body and are generally either utilised or excreted in the urine. As they are not stored in the body, they tend to have low toxicity and are needed on a daily basis.